Land Ethic :: essays research papers

The land ethic is a holistic view of ecosystems. It entails an entire view of a biotic community to include all of nature, not just the individualistic components which incorporate our environment. Great efforts would be taken by supporters of the ‘land ethic’ to support an ecosystem that was threatened. The individual components that comprise the ecosystem are not of great concern to supporters of this theory; they would argue that a threat to an individual organism, even protected or endangered, should be evaluated on whether or not the protected or endangered species does endanger the integrity of the whole system. A supporter of the land ethic argument would have consequences to weigh regarding the value of the threatened individual and how it relates to the survival of individuals of the group. If the group were to suffer a threatening blow that could affect the livelihood or existence of members of the controlling group one would expect that the threatened organis m could be evaluated for possible â€Å"non-protection†. In contrast, a Respect for Nature ethic believes that any animal or living organism should be protected because that organism is deserving of its own individual worth; the fact that it is protected or endangered would be of little concern to these supporters. The simple fact that an individual is threatened is more than sufficient to justify that great efforts be taken to protect that individual entity. The Respect for Nature ethic followers would argue that every organism is worthy of protection because of an inherent worth that entitles that entity to protection from destruction.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  If society were to take either side of this argument, there would be consequences. To take the land ethic view, our current use of the land for farming and raising livestock would change and our view as the conqueror of the land would change to more towards a â€Å"biotic citizen† or a member of the land community.

Public Administration

Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research Vol. 4(2) pp. 23-31 March, 2012 Available online at http://www. academicjournals. org/JPAPR DOI: 10. 5897/JPAPR11. 049 ISSN 2141-2480  ©2012 Academic Journals Review Ethics in Public Administration D. Radhika Ph. D. Research Scholar, Post-Graduate and Research Department of Public Administration, Anna Adarsh College for Women, (affiliated to the University of Madras) Chennai-600040, Tamilnadu, India. E-mail: [email  protected] com. Accepted 23 February, 2012The modern world has seen an increase in interest in the areas related to the ethics of the sovereign good. A number of studies have focused on this subject matter and several academicians have exposed a number of ethical and philosophical dilemmas related to the concept of ethics in public administration. Despite the increasing number of studies that have focused on the importance of administrative ethics, there has been very little effort spent on identifying what exactly constitutes the crux of ethics in administration.The objective of this paper is to review the implications of the basic principles of ethics for public administration in the context of new public governance and discuss their impact on different administration imperatives which in turn act as the determinants of ethics in public administration. This review will also focus on the importance of ethics in new governance practices (privatization, decentralization, debureaucratization, devolution of budgets etc. ,) with reference to the push and pull of ethics and administration and how ethics mindsets and basic approaches to administration and governance can be changed.Key words: Ethics, public administration, ethical imperatives, ethics and public administration, ethics and morals. INTRODUCTION Since the 1970s there has been a great deal of change associated with the implementation of administrative ethics. These changes have been promoted and motivated by the concept of public administ ration in the new era. An important position is given to the concept of ethical issues in today’s civil governance. There has been a great deal of research associated with this concept which has been supported by translation of evidences and theories into practice across different continents.Frederickson and Ghere (2005) address both the managerial and individual/moral dimensions of ethical behavior as well as new challenges to administrative ethics posed by globalization. As promoted by Cooper (2001) ethics in public administration is not a transient concept but has proven to be an approach which has shown a great deal of sustainability which is fundamental to the area of public administration. Public administration has certain issues with regard to ethics implementation and finds it troublesome to come to terms with them. One reason for this is because ethics is embedded in an intellectual framework.This framework is based on stable institutional as well as role relationshi p levels, among both public employees as well as the organization. According to the views of a number of researchers (Bang and Sorensen, 1999; Keast et al. , 2004; Rhodes, 1996; Sorensen, 2002, 2006; Sorensen and Torfing, 2004; Stoker, 1998), current government perspectives believe that clarity and stability at these levels would be problematic. Despite the increasing number of studies that have focused on the importance of administrative ethics, there has been very little effort spent on identifying what is exactly the crux of ethics in administration (Cooper, 2004).This lack of directed research in the dynamics of operations with regards to ethics in public administration along with constant changes in the principles and policies associated with administrative ethics need to be examined. These developments have raised new topics for concern in this field. One example which can be cited at this juncture is the emergence of the concept of egovernance which would require the identifi cation of a whole new paradigm of ethics in public administration. This article tries to identify the ways in which administrative policies in public organizations can be 24 J.Public Adm. Policy Res. promoted and managed by adopting an effective and novel ethical approach. It would be prudent to mention the â€Å"ethics framework† here. The ethics framework (Bosseart and Demmke, 2005) is a voluntary, non-legally binding European Code of Ethics. It reflects the basic common values and standards which member states consider important for the proper functioning of public service. It comprehensively discusses the general core values, specific standards of conduct, actions to safeguard integrity and measures on handling situations where there has been possible violation of ethics.It helps to structure the discussion on public-service ethics and it serves as a toolkit or general guideline for the development of codes of conduct at a national and subnational level. Originally, the e thics framework identifies general core values that should be common to all member states. These values are the rule of law (â€Å"lawfulness†), impartiality/ objectivity, transparency (â€Å"openness†), accountability, professionalism (â€Å"expertise†), and duty of care, reliability (â€Å"confidence, trust†) and courtesy (â€Å"service principle†).If it is believed that these are the core values, then they should be fully recognised in every country. Public-service ethics is an issue that is taken seriously in every member state of the European Union. However, member states are at different stages of development and measures that are considered necessary in one country may be deemed irrelevant in others. The ethics framework has had a greater impact on those new member states that are currently fighting against corruption.In the case of old member states, the Framework has had smaller impact since the core values have traditionally been an integ ral part of their administrative culture and many of the tools proposed in the Framework were already in use. For example if one considers Portugal, an old member state where the administrative culture is traditional and core values are already a part of the administrative framework there are alterations in the form of codes of conduct which can be proposed in order to promote ethics in public administration.However the norms and regulations associated with the old administrative culture were not modified or removed. This resulted in two different viewpoints being promoted by the same government. This has resulted in a great deal of tension between traditional administrative culture and the new concepts of quality in public administration. NEW PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION AND ETHICS Globally the concept of privatization has been promoted in new public administration. It is seen that this concept is related to the measures which promote establishment of efficiency and efficacy leading to ev elopment of quality deliverance of public services. In the research conducted by Savas (2000), the concept of â€Å"privatization in new public management†, is promoted. Further identified by Walsh et al. (1997) introduction of new market mechanisms which promote effective implementation of public services in organizations is identified. Walsh in his research has identified that privatization in governance in the United Kingdom has resulted in a new paradigm, which has promoted transformation of both organizational and cultural needs.The purpose of these reforms include reduction of cost relating to the actions of the governments, identification of measures to reduce the direct impact of action of public employees and bringing about a variation in the overall views of the government by the public. This type of privatization maneuver not only challenged the current realities associated with ethics in public administration, wherein administrators were considered as technical pr ofessionals, but also identified the type of functioning that does not take into account good judgment on the part of employees.Accordingly, intellectual proponents of the ethical perspective were responsible for the first noteworthy approach of public administrators’ ethical obligations and the importance of citizen participation in administrative decisions (Cooper, 2004). This has long been in place in developed countries across the world as seen with the NPM concepts promoted by Ronald Reagan in USA and Margaret Thatcher in the UK. REINVENTING GOVERNMENT As seen by Osborne and Gaebler (1992), it is observed that reinventing the government assumed importance in Bill Clinton’s administration.In his era, new concepts of public administration with regards to two different areas were promoted. The first, involved identification of factors which promoted the productivity of governance and the second involved setting a new vision and mission policy. It was proposed that th e productivity of governance can be increased by adopting more ethical measures in terms of distinguishing between the results and quantity of resources used. The use of a new mission policy will satisfy the needs of the general public. These measures may be identified to be less drastic when compared to the concept of privatization of governmental organizations.However this idea can be promoted and productivity increased only when there is a change in attitude towards current concepts of established hierarchy in governance. A move should be made toward promotion of methods to identify flexibility, centralization and concentration of public administration aspects. These aspects may be considered to be an intermediate solution to privatization. If it is not possible, delegation mechanisms can be a solution. With regard to the ethical position, the researcher advocates that privatization may not alter the fact that the responsibility of the state towards its citizens will be met.Radhi ka 25 Different processes which are to be supervised and controlled need to be realized by the government because ultimately the accountability and ethics of the action of the government to its citizens is needed. The scope and responsibilities of public administration changed due to the dynamics of new public management systems such as privatization, decentralization, debureaucratization and citizen partnership that are essentially new public management techniques and practices drawn mainly from the private sector and increasingly seen as a global phenomenon.These concepts shift the emphasis from traditional public administration to public management which accorded ethics a central position. The purpose of public service is to essentially fulfil a citizen’s basic requirements. Rocha (2000), observes that groups calling for professional management of public administration argue that they are more efficient and effective than the existing framework. They call for breaking down large institutions into manageable centres, thus allowing for independent functioning as part of the new economic institutional ideal.MORALS: THE RISE OF ETHICAL REASONING ABOUT MORALS Snell (1976) has maintained that it was Socrates, the founder of moral philosophy who enquired into the nature of ethics as his thoughts led him to the inner person rather than the external physical factors in 5 B. C. Morality’s choice of good and sound ethics was a natural means of developing a strong moral fibre. Socrates also felt that knowledge and morality were interrelated and one could not be moral if one did not know what morals were and what was good for mankind. Thus, he thought of virtue as being the centrepiece of nowledge and reasoned that virtue was knowledge. All thought and action therefore had to emanate from the knowledge of what was good or bad and then, be judged by ethical and moral standards. This would then lead to true happiness. (Vlastos, 1991), states that it was Socr ates’ idea that morality be linked to happiness because he felt ethics was about knowing what was good. Socrates’ thoughts also reached the common man through discourses and debates, and intense conversations, which constantly probed, questioned and thus, evoked reactions and insights while testing his views and theories through his now-famous dialogues.He felt constant engagement with the questions of virtue. He believed that morality would make people better as they would focus more on their own moral standards. DETERMINANTS ADMINISTRATION OF ETHICS IN PUBLIC public sector include: 1) The political construct of which public administrators are a part 2) The legal framework 3) The administrators and public employees who are responsible for the provision of public services 4) The citizens and users of public services that are a part of the civil society.First, the determinants of ethics in public administration with regard to the individual attributes of public/civil se rvants include ethical decision-making skills (Richardson and Nigro 1987), mental attitude (Bailey, 1964), virtues (Dimock, 1990; Dobel, 1990; Gregory, 1999; Hart, 1989), and professional values (Van Wart, 1998). Secondly, the organizational structure dimension is explained by clear accountability, collaborative arrangements, dissent channels, and participation procedures (Denhardt, 1988; Thomson, 1985).Third, the political organizational culture includes artefacts, beliefs and values, and assumptions (Schein, 1985). Leadership is important in the development, maintenance, and adaptation of organizational culture (Scott, 1982; Schein, 1985; Ott, 1989). Ethical behavior is encouraged when organizations have a climate where personal standards and employee education are emphasized, where supervisors stress the truth, and where employees regularly come together to discuss ethical problems (Bruce, 1995, 1994). Finally, societal expectation includes public participation, laws, and policie s.The advanced set of fundamental principles or criteria that integrate the process of dealing with ethical dilemmas in public administration are: 1) Democratic accountability of administration, 2) The rule of law and the principle of legality, 3) Professional integrity and 4) Responsiveness to civil society. This can be described as the ALIR model of imperatives of ethical reasoning in public administration. The research by Parsons (1964) presented the concept of ‘evolutionary universals in society’; wherein there are aspects associated with the identification of issues related to public administration ethics.In his Evolutionary Universals Parsons tied his functionalist theory to an evolutionary perspective and argued that, like biological organisms, societies progress through their ‘capacity for generalized adaptation’ to their environment. This is achieved mainly through processes of structural differentiation; that is, the development of specialized ins titutions to perform the social functions necessary to meet increasingly specialized needs. However, this increasing complexity then requires new modes of integration, in 1 The major determinants of administrative conduct in the ALIR- Accountability, Legality, Integrity, Responsiveness 26 J. Public Adm. Policy Res. order to co-ordinate the new and more specialized elements. This is achieved via the principle of the ‘cybernetic hierarchy’ or the increased information exchange or the growth of knowledge. Evolution is then from traditional to modern societies, and progress can be charted via the development (structural differentiation) of evolutionary universals such as bureaucratic organization, money and market complexes, stratification, and the emergence of generalized universalistic norms.Each of these enables a society to adapt more efficiently to its environment. The concepts of ALIR and Parsons’ evolutionary universals have some commonalities from the point o f view of public administration. The identification of a new type of governance which promotes evolutionary universality will be vital in democratically identifying the rule of law which is capable of carrying out its role as well as taking into consideration the tasks of the civil society. The researcher feels that this type of interdependence and connection will help in distinguishing between various concepts of ethics in public administration.This will also help extend morally and effectively the following four functional concepts: 1) Accountability of public bureaucracy which helps identifies the relationship between legitimate actions and its link to administration. 2) The rule of law and legality wherein public administration should be governed by the law. 3) Concepts of professional integrity and autonomy among public administrators which will ultimately help promote the principle of meritocracy. 4) Concepts of responsibility and immediate action of public administration to i ts citizens.Consequently, the artful application of such a set of moral commands in concrete situations and circumstances will bear witness to the particular kind of ethical reasoning that a specific administrative system or public institution is able to achieve and sustain. PRINCIPLES OF ETHICS It is important to concentrate on the two leading models(ethics of the sovereign good and ethics of the service of goods) that are involved with ethical thoughts and actions within the public sectors. Furthermore, we will also compare and contrast them with the collaborative ethics that were mentioned above.It has to be kept in mind that we are not taking any particular or specific approach but rather will be taking the modern understanding of could be called â€Å"vulgar Kantianism† or a â€Å"vulgar utilitarianism† (Harmon, 2005). Ethics of the sovereign good The ethics of the sovereign good is nothing but the set of guidelines based on which an individual acts. The ethics of the sovereign good is identified to be a set of values from which the different views on ‘what is good’ can be judged. It can be commonly seen in real world scenarios that many people have different versions of the same ethical concept.People try to twist the concept to fit their needs based on their conception of the â€Å"good†. Therefore it is important to identify the viewpoint that holds the true spirit of the ethical guidelines. Michael (2005, 2003) makes a compelling argument in â€Å"The public administration†, with regards to the ethics of the sovereign good. According to him it can be called ‘principled morality’. In his argument he talks about why one should not act on the principles set by the ethics of the sovereign good. An important reason is the issue of opposing principles.According to him, not all conflicts can be resolved by basing it on the ethics that are subscribed in the sovereign good. This is because ethics does not t ake into account a large number of variables that other principles apply to that particular scenario. The primary issue with the ethics of the sovereign good is the fact that it refers to itself as the absolute last word when it comes to ethical decisions. Another issue is that it tends to assume an attitude that is raw linguistic positivism.One reason why the ethic of the sovereign good is so appealing is that it tends to transcend beyond the individual and looks at the bigger collective when it comes to defining proper ethics. Therefore it will not solve the individual issues but will rather lead us into an unrecognized and impossible (from its perspective) aporia. Ethics of the service of goods The values that are promoted by the ethics of the service of goods are mainly efficiency and maximization of the inputs to outputs. Basically there are three aspects which are important when it comes to the service of goods.They are logic of reciprocity, its view of the collective, and its criteria for judgment. It can also be clearly seen that the ethics of the sovereign good are mainly targeted towards the market. At the very core, service of goods is based on mutual exchange. Basically it assumes that people are rational and have the freedom to choose what goods or services they want. Thus, if an individual likes a particular good/ service; he/she can enter into an agreement with a suitable trader on the terms for the purchase of the same service or good.In exchange the individual can offer monetary resources to compensate the trader for the services and goods that they have provided. This is an amicable process that is disrupted only when someone fails to deliver the goods as per the terms agreed to. This will result in the decline of the social good. However in the case when everything is going smoothly, what is good for the individual ends up being good for the collective Radhika 27 whole. There have been a lot of questions that have been directed towards the e thics of the service of goods.The questions that are raised are often related to the presumption of self-interest and about the ability of people to know their true interests. These questions are considered to be problematic for reasons both empirical and logical. According to different researchers (Bauman, 2001, 2005; Catlaw, 2009), viability is an issue since the ethics of the sovereign good tends to legitimize everything as long as it promotes trade and therefore in the long run has a tendency to wear away minimal stability . This stability is needed for an intelligible world with better ethics.It neglects the problem that one must always ask â€Å"efficient to what end†? â€Å"Or â€Å"good for whom†? Following this line of thought different imperatives need to be understood in the context of ethics in administration which are discussed subsequently. ACCOUNTABILITY IMPERATIVES The distinction between politics and administration, which forms one of the most classic doctrines of modern political science and public administration (Easton, 1953), connotes not only their division of functions and their structural separation but also the subordination of the latter to the former.This stream of thought also feels that politics is superior to administration and that the government controls the administrative machinery. Bureaucrats are loyal to their ministers, who in turn are loyal to the legislature, which is loyal to the people as they are their countrymen. Thus these ‘people’s representatives’ hold the administration accountable in the interests of the general public. Ministers are accountable to the Parliament and not civil servants and hence civil servants have to act as per the orders of their ministers whether they are in agreement or not as long as the law is not circumvented or breached.Subordination of civil servants to elected representatives who act as law-makers and policy-setters forms a sine qua non precondition of democratic politics. When the bureaucracy and administration usurps power, which does not belong to it; the bureaucracy (civil or military) enters the political arena, undermines representative democracy and subjugates politics and government to its own interests and commands. Thus, it falls upon the civil servants to work diligently under the legislature as these representatives actually reflect the will of the people. They also have to apply considerable restraint in partisan politics nd while expressing their personal views. Thus, democratic virtue is not a part of the core value of public administration and neither can the parliament usurp public service institutions for its own political ends. Modern governance celebrates the different roles and responsibilities of politics and administration as it leads to higher efficacy of both functions and that is an important part of moral and personal integrity-the ability to be able to tell the truth to the powers that be. LEGAL IMPERA TIVES Administrators have to respect the legal framework and act within its bounds thus rendering all government action legitimate.Law is a universal concept in both politics and society. (Reichstadt, Etat de Droit). Max Weber sees the action of a state within the law as the third way of legitimizing authority with the other two being, charisma and tradition. Once the administration works within the realm of the law, it automatically sets forth for itself a series of controls and regulations. Power flows from the people and thus all power must be used for the good of the people, a fundamental requirement of most democratic constitutions. Governments and administrations therefore have no choice but to work within the legal framework.Thus, the way the judiciary implements these laws which are there to ultimately serve the people forms the core of the legal determinants. Brown and Duguid (2000) state that courts ensure that the law will be followed during the discharge of public duty a nd that no injustice or partiality will do and that power will not be abused. Constant monitoring and protection of the law has to be a priority if administrative reforms are to take place. Even Aristotle commented that the law should be supreme in the eyes of the people and should operate without any interference.THE INTEGRITY IMPERATIVE Chapman (1959) states, as professional ethics entered the administrative space so did the need for studying public administration and defining its scope and determinants. The nation states of Europe among others 2 have taken steps to professionalize the government. (The ethics framework and the European code of ethics) Ministers guide the bureaucracy which discharges its public duties in conformity with the law. They are chosen on the basis of special criteria and procedures which govern their recruitment, career path, discipline, and scope etc.Professional virtue brings with it integrity and acceptance of the hierarchical dominance of the governme nt but works under the authority of the law. Argyriades (1996) observes that civil servants are the permanent officers of the transient politicians in Parliament. Their competency from experience, knowledge, depth etc. , helps them assess ground realities and advise the parliament and implement public policies in an effective manner in the interest of the public. The essential 2 The ethics framework: Available on http://forum. europa. eu. int/ 28 J. Public Adm. Policy Res. eatures of a professional public service which would include knowledge of expertise, of judgement and conduct in accordance to standards, as well as commitment to the field comprise the following: 1) Recruitment should be carried out on the basis of tests and merits conducted by separate bodies and governed by regulations that are independent of politics and political systems. It should take place impartially and solely consider merit and achievements. Merit, therefore is a huge determinant of integrity and autono my. 2) Self governance should be stressed on by administrative councils to promote corporate spirit and professionalism.Experience and length of service as well as achievements and performance must be taken into account for promotions. 3) Training and education should increase professionalism in government and administration as a whole. Professionalism in public service can be seen in people who have a very good knowledge of the job in which they are working at, their expertise and talent and their ability to adhere to the highest ethical standards. Thus a true professional is one who has an adequate mix of expertise, knowledge and experience and also those who can meet the public’s expectation of them.The general public and society have certain guidelines for various professionals who are expected to adhere to these standards. For example, corruption is frowned up on by the general public and therefore a true professional would be expected to follow such practices. Otherwise , the profession is deprived of an essential precondition of its claim to legitimacy. Corruption can be a major obstacle in the process of economic development and in modernizing a country. The greater recognition that corruption can have a serious adverse impact on development has been a cause for concern among developing countries.In a survey of 150 high level officials from 60 third world countries, the respondents ranked public sector corruption as the most severe obstacle confronting their development process (Gray and Kaufmann, 1998). Countries in the Asia and Pacific region are also very worried about this problem and they are in substantial agreement that corruption is a major constraint that is hindering their economic, political and social development, and hence view it as a problem requiring urgent attention at the highest level.An example of how corruption can affect a nations’ stability that can be cited at this point is the pandemic bureaucratic and political in stability in Nigeria which is the main cause of democratic instability in the country. Ogundiya (2010) argues that democratic stability will be difficult to attain as long as corruption remains pandemic and unchecked. According to Hegel (1967), â€Å"What the service of the state really requires is that men shall forego the selfish and capricious satisfaction of their subjective ends; by his very sacrifice, they acquire the right to find their satisfaction in, but only in, the dutiful discharge of their public functions†. It may be inferred from the aforementioned that there exists a link between the universal and particular interests. The government employee would then be expected to follow a code of ethics consolidating professional virtue and integrity. Another advantage of this is that by doing so, their self confidence and motivation will rise. This is applicable for any professional in any country. Integrity can be achieved through self control in administrative conduct based on ethical standards.THE IMPERATIVE FOR RESPONSIVENESS According to Hegel (1967), public servants worked solely for the state and not for society as it was the first, which determined the choice of citizens. The society as opposed to this was viewed by Hegel as being a total of specific and contrasting desires. This then became the sphere of the particular, of concrete persons with their own private ‘systems of needs and the efforts to satisfy them. Whereas the state served the general interest, civil society was the state of partial interests.In this somehow dichotomous idea of social construction, individuals actualize themselves while partaking in various activities in civil society and ‘in becoming something definite, that is, something specifically particularized' (Hegel, 1967). The state, however, with its system of governance and law provides the underlying conditions by which individuals and their actions may find their fullest fulfillment. For that reason , the state was for Hegel the ‘actuality of the ethical idea', that is the unity of the universal and the particular.Hegel’s ideas could be more properly comprehended if it is considered that he lived in a nation where many of the people were basically subjects with no role in the functioning of the government and hence a political life and convention such as the English have had was almost negligible. His work was an effort to spread awareness among the Germans about the political aspects of life. Gellner (1996) and Argyriades (1998) observe that without an expressive and self-sufficient civil society, no political life and even less democratic polity is likely to grow and flourish.Hence, civil society has been thought of as one of the most crucial requisites for freedom and democracy. The idea that was advocated by the beginning of the twenty-first century was that the state must neither direct civil society nor be submissive to it. Rather it should stress and pitch i n the task of building social capital to the advantage of the human race which is involved. Hence, juggling an alert state and an active civil society poses a good plan for improving the standards and the future for democratic tasks.In this respect, the ‘civic virtue' of ethical reasoning in state action entails that public institutions be responsive Radhika 29 to society and pay attention to the needs and demands of the people, facilitating access to services and creating an enabling environment for sustainable human and social development. (Bovens, 1998) states, alertness is not confined to market authorities but is majorly involved in the citizens’ role in to every extent and in every tier of the government, and it also involves giving power to people in human groups.Responsiveness also entails consultation in governance and the promotion of a kind of ‘communicative ethic’ (Habermas, 1987) in societal affairs. The transition, however cumbersome it may be , from the command type of authority over people to more communicative types of reasoning and administration of things seems to emerge as a radical paradigm shift in societal affairs. In this context, civil society not only furnishes the state with needs and demands of an individual nature, but also with valuable sources of information, feedback criticism and evaluation of performance.Therefore, notions like decentralization, de-bureaucratization, privatization and citizen participation loom large in the repertoire of reform programmes and practices of many contemporary administrative systems, and affect the interface between civil society and the state. It also influences the interaction between the state and the civil society. (Buchanan, 1985) observes that society has ceased to be just the concern of state actors and molded by bureaucracy, on the contrary it is now in the purview of the active citizen’s concern.Naturally, ‘a country's view of public administration re flects its underlying philosophy of society and the state' (Chapman, 1959). State officials are affected by the way the public at large regards them. Eventually, civil servants forming a middle-class profession, par excellence, acquire the features that society expects of them. Public administration forms a partial regime in the societal complex; it is part of the state, which is subject to a distinct ‘ethic of responsibility' – in the Weberian sensevis-a-vis the society. The ideas of alertness and accountability and answerability have some similarity.These ideas also have overlaps. In spite of the number of meanings they have, it cannot be ignored that the basic aspect concerns duty and the preparedness of civil servants to honestly rationalize and defend their moves for public good. NEW ETHICAL APPROACH Denhardt and Denhardt (2002) argue that public administrators influence, and are influenced by, all of the competing standards, values, and preferences of the complex governance system. These variables not only influence, and are influenced by, public administrators; they also represent points of accountability.They plead for a â€Å"new public service† instead of â€Å"new public management† under the slogan â€Å"serving rather than steering. † Maesschalk (2001) defines the new public service approach as a viable third alternative to the observed dichotomy between â€Å"the old public administration† and â€Å"the new public management,† paying considerable attention to the development of a new ethic for public servants. The new public service authors largely join the traditionalist group in their negative assessment of the ethical consequences of NPM reforms.They propose new mechanisms in which â€Å"the primary role of the public servant is to help citizens articulate and meet their shared interests rather than to attempt to control or steer society. † It is necessary to have a management which makes available the standardization of professional ethical values, and an Aristotelian procedure of absorbing constant adjustments. This achievement resides in true ethics-based politics, which is standardized and universal. It is a must to move from forced bureaucratic demands to more agreement-based behaviour for public good.Thus the current reality needs creative methods and clubbed techniques. Hence we recommend that a public governance moral structuring could include the following aspects: 1) Instruments for answerability 2) Supervising systems through local and outside question forms 3) Forging of helpful measures to motivate moralistic attitudes award ethical acts 4) Application of audit techniques at an Intergovernmental level 5) Official socialization (for example, structuring, knowledge and guidance) 6) Establishing of whistle-blowing mechanisms cautiously 7) A greater plea for an active citizenry. ) Outlining managerial tasks 9) Effective communication. Management of ethics Th e concept of ethics is naturally reliant on genuine political desire. In this manner there is sufficient scope to establish a holistic moral code in an inclusive, organised fashion. Stand-alone steps are of no use. By evolving certain mechanisms for moral functioning, one can provide solutions for conflict of ethics, difficulties, and other scenarios.It is also helpful to encourage the growth of instruments and techniques which can predict difficulties related to ethics and beneficial to propose solutions in a more agreeable manner. Unsurprisingly, the basic principle and aim of worthy administrations are, according to Aristotle, to habituate citizens and civil workers to the inculcation of virtue. This is validated by the events in states, for law makers who mould citizens to act properly by inculcating good habits in them. It is the desire of every law maker and as for 0 J. Public Adm. Policy Res. those who cannot succeed; this is what distinguishes an effective polity from a bad one. Aristotle is of the view that the main role of the governor is to facilitate moral literacy for citizens. To be able to do so, he or she will need a lot of awareness, knowledge of virtue, and that kind of awareness can only come through a perpetual quest and enquiry about things and acts. Morality is basically about questioning. This is the main advantage of human life else it is an unworthy life.Life which has not been exposed to tests is unacceptable to humans said Socrates, in his exceptional Apology (38 A) for a moralistic stand in life. Dealing with administration ethical dilemmas in public Hart (1961) states that at the time of facing basic queries about what to do and which manner to behave in complicated scenarios and the degree to which opposed values or choice factors could be used in the scenario, one ventures in the region of ethical confusions or of â€Å"hard choices†. A dilemma is a concept which is broader and more exacting than a problem no matter how to ugh or complicated it is.The reason is that dilemmas, unlike problems, cannot be solved in the terms in which they are initially presented to the decision-maker. Being entangled in a dilemma, the choice-maker is not just confronted with contradictory and unwanted substitutes, worse, the impossibility of their being matched also means that they are separate in the sense that one can only be fulfilled if the other is not taken care of. Hence a scenario of a dilemma could result a no-win game in which the decision of one worthy substitute is always adhered to by the negation of the other.Addressing the dilemma in such a fashion would then be an opposition in terms and an aberration as the answer which is arrived at would appear to be no good and signify a complete break-up of the entangled factors of the matters to be solved. A difficulty could however be managed properly if the conditions of reference changed and the entire scenario was restructured so that focus be given to all optio ns which are organised and connected among themselves in a more orderly and sensible way. Obviously, dilemmas are many in complicated establishments, which cannot solve them properly.As an outcome, state officials and civil servants witnessing sharp dilemmas cannot but help being confused and embarrassed unwillingly. In such scenario, public governance rather than operating in the manner in which it is supposed to, lapses into a condition of chaos and uncertainty. It is in this case that moral ambiguity and lack of lucidity about larger values to direct choices and tasks in hard events may cause unbridled scepticism and a cynical attitude. Naturally, dilemmas abound in complex organizations, which fail to tackle them effectively.As a result, state officials and civil servants exposed to acute dilemmas can hardly help succumbing to a state of confusion and embarrassment in which they are often quite unwillingly thrust. In circumstances like these public administration instead of func tioning as a well ordered state of legitimate purposes degenerates into a state of confusion and indeterminacy. It is then that the case of ethical vagueness and lack of clarity about overall values to guide action and choices in ‘hard cases' comes about in administration.But if everything stands and anything goes, then nothing can be taken seriously, neither ethics and values nor rights and duties of public servants and citizens alike. The growing group of basic tenets or aspects that unite and restructure the procedure of handling ethical dilemmas in public governance are: (1) democratic answerability of governance, (2) the application of law and the notion of legality, (3) official honesty, and (4) alertness to civil society needs. CONCLUSION Even prior to the close of the twentieth century, it was apparent that states, governments, and public entities were venturing into an era of change.This was basically a period of change and not a model-based shift from dictatorial, ce ntrally-powerful states to increasingly free and consultative kinds of social communication between the people and the administrators. A different set of equations between politics, economy, culture, and civil society has been the trigger for new research on more inputs and restructuring of the responsibilities of the state and those of the public services with regard to the society and the economy. The planning for moral improvement in the public sector throws up uge questions impacting the nature of democracy, law, motivation and ethics in the public domain, and the state’s communication with civil society. There is not much uncertainty that clashing demands can make governance appear inconsistent. As a matter of fact, every one of the ALIR requirements for moralistic rationalizing if taken to its extreme would be a big hurdle rather than an asset. Some disagreements between constituents of an entity which upset the state of larger conditions can only be set right if justic e at par is given to every one of them; or rather if it dispenses what is apt to all.Not surprisingly, for Aristotle justice is the balance of passions and actions, and moral virtues reside in middle states (Lasswell, 1971). The basic aim would therefore be not the triumph of one principle or ethical imperative over the other, but rather the reduction of incongruence among them and the provision of conditions for their harmonious coexistence, mutual support and complementary fulfillment. Turning mutually exclusive dilemmas into solvable problems would then require a holistic and reflexive approach to Radhika 31 ethical reasoning.Thus modernity and change in public administration is not just applicable towards the civil society but also the civil service and public administration in a number of different ways both locally and internationally. Therefore when it comes to public administration, ethics must provide a fair degree of flexibility when it comes to framing a rational decision . It can be seen that public administrators are best placed to answer someone’s need. Thus, there is a pressing need to place morality and ethics first in the public administration of today. REFERENCES Argyriades D (1996).Neutrality and Professionalism in the Public Service. Haile K. Asmeron and Elsa P. Reis (Eds) Democratization and Bureaucratic Neutrality. London. Macmillan, pp. 45-77. Argyriades D (1998). The Role of Civil Society in the Modern State. The Inter. J. Tech. Co-operation, 4: 237-245. Bailey K (1964). Ethics and the Public Service. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 24(4): 234-243. Bang HP, Sorensen E (1999). The everyday maker: A new challenge to democratic governance. Adm. Theory Praxis, 31: 325-341. Bossaert D, Demmke C (2005). Main Challenges in the Field of Ethics and Integrity in the EU Member States. Eur. Inst. Publ.Adm. , p. 270. Bovens M (1998). The Quest for Responsibility: Accountability and Citizenship in Complex Organizations. Cambridge, Cambridge University Press, p. 252. Bruce WM (1994). Ethical People Are Productive People. Publ. Prod. Manage. Rev. , 17: 241-252. Bruce WM (1995). How Municipalities in Ten Countries Promote Administrative Ethics. Hong Kong Publ. Adm. , 4(1): 55-75. Caiden G (1991). Administrative Reform Comes of Age. Los Angeles: De Gruyter, p. 347. Catlaw TJ (2009). Public Administration and the Lives of Others, Toward an Ethics of Collaboration Administration and Society, 41: 290-312.Chapman B (1959). The Profession of Government. The Public Service in Europe. London, Unwin University Books, p. 64. Cooper LT (2001). The Emergence of Administrative Ethics as a Field of Study in the United States. Handbook of Administrative Ethics, pp. 1-36. Cooper LT (2004) Big Questions in Administrative Ethics: A Need for Focused, Collaborative Effort. Washington D. C. , Publ. Adm. Rev. , 64(4): 395-407 Denhardt JV, Denhardt RB (2002). The New Public Service: serving, not steering. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 60: 549-559. Dimock M (1990). The Rest orative Qualities of Citizenship. Publ. Adm. Rev. 50: 21-25. Dobel JP (1990). Integrity in the Public Service. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 50: 354-366. Easton D (1953). The Political System. Chicago, University of Chicago Press, p. 189. Gellner E (1996). Conditions of Liberty, Civil Society, and its Rivals. London. Penguin Books, p. 225. Giddens A (1990). The Consequences of Modernity. Stanford University Press, p. 188 Gray CW, Kauffman D (1998). Corruption and Development. Financ. Dev. , 35(1): 1-4 Gregory RJ (1999). Social Capital Theory and Administrative Reform. Maintaining Ethical Probity in Public Service. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 59: 63-75. Habermas J (1987).The Theory of Communicative Action (1 ed. ). London. Heinemann, pp. 85-101. Hart DK (1989). A Partnership in Virtue among All Citizens: The Public Service and Civic Humanism. Publ Adm.. Rev. , 49: 101-105. Hart H (1961). The Concept of Law. Oxford: Clarendon Press, p. 315. Hegel G (1967). Philosophy of Right translated by T. M. Knox. Oxfo rd: Oxford University Press, p. 13. Keast R, Mandell M, Brown K, Woolcock G (2004). Network Structures: Working Differently and Changing Expectations. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 64(3): 363-371. Lasswell HD (1971). A Preview of Policy Sciences. New York: Elsevier, p. 173. Maesschalk J (2001).Towards an understanding of the impact of new public management reforms on the ethical/unethical behavior of civil servants, a conceptual framework. Paper presented at the 29th ECPR Joint Sessions of Workshops, Grenoble, France. Mouzelis N (1993). Sociological Theory: What went wrong? Cult. Soc. , 10(2): 239-253. Ogundiya IS (2010). Corruption: The Bane of Democratic Stability in Nigeria. Current Res. J. Soc. Sci. , (2)4: 233-241. Osborne D, Gaebler T (1992). Reinventing Government: How the Entrepreneurial Spirit is transforming the Public Sector. New York: Addison-Wesley Publishing Company, p. 405.Ott JS (1989). The Organizational Culture Perspective. Dorsey Press, Chicago, p. 231. Parsons T (1964). Evol utionary Universals in Society. Am. Soc. Rev. , (29)3: 339-357 Rhodes RAW (1996). The new governance: Governing without government. Pol. Stud. , 44: 652-667. Richardson WD, Nigro LG (1987). Administrative Ethics and Funding Thought. Constitutional Correctives, Honor, and Education. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 47: 367-376. Rocha JO (2000). Models of Public Management. Magazine of Public Admin. , 1(1): 6-16. Savas ES (2000). Privatization and the New Public Management. Fordham Urban Law Journal (28)5: 1731-1737.Scott WG (1982). Barnard on the Nature of Elitist Responsibility. Public Adm. Rev. , 42(3): 197-201. Sorensen E (2002). Democratic theory and network governance. Ad. Theory Praxis, 24: 693-720. Sorensen E (2006). Metagovernance: The changing role of politicians in processes of democratic governance. Am. Rev. Publ. Adm. , 36: 98114. Thompson D (1985). The Possibility of Administrative Ethics. Publ. Adm. Rev. , 45(5): 555-561. Van WM (1998). Changing Public Sector Values. Garland Publishin g, Inc, pp. 699-712 Vlastos G (1991). Socrates. Ironist and Moral Philosopher. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, p. 175.

Marketing Analysis Marketing Mix - 2079 Words

3.0 Marketing Strategy 3.1 Marketing Mix The portion of Strabucks marketing is reflecting the social aspects of their customers, while the other portion is focused on rebranding of their locations. Starbuck s marketing mix(4P s) indicates the importance of this marketing tool as a way to ensure that the firm promotes the right product at the right place and with right pricing. 3.1.1 Product/Service The customers demand Starbucks to be innovative. Starbucks is focusing on the food side of the business. It would be very beneficial for the Starbucks to focus on their in-store items or baked goods. The test locations have already started to follow on this trend, and have provided positive feedback and results. Starbucks is continuing†¦show more content†¦3.1.2 Price Starbucks follows a premium pricing strategy. This pricing strategy takes advantage of the behavioral pattern of people to purchase more expensive products on the basis of the perceived correlation between high price and high value. The company’s coffee products are more expensive than most competing products, such as McDonald’s Premium Roast. Through this pricing strategy, the company maintains its high-end specialty image (Greenspan, 2015). Starbucks is not only a high-priced coffee shop but it offers a combination of quality, authority, and relative value. Starbucks sets its prices on the basis of a simple idea: high value at moderate cost. When people feel that they are getting a good deal for their money, they are more likely to pay a higher cost. Quality is key. Starbucks has to maintain strict quality controls in its coffee sourcing as well as in its customer service and related products to justify its costs (O Farrell, n.d.). Starbucks pricing strategy also depends on how it positions itself as an authority on coffee, which is allowing the company to charge premium prices. Thus, when Starbucks introduces new products at higher prices, consumers are willing to pay extra without even having tried the products because they associate the Starbucks name with high quality (O Farrell, n.d.). Starbucks alsoShow MoreRelatedMarketing Mix and Pestle Analysis of Mcdonalds in India3095 Words   |  13 Pagesafter the western operations in India.    The taste of the Chicken burger that one from Bangalore will be similar to that in Delhi if the point of purchase is Mc Donald. Mc Donald has become an integral part of today’s Indian metros.    PESTLE ANALYSIS    Pestle analysis is the done to analyze the macro environmental factors of a company or Industry.      Political Factors    The operation of any international company would be influenced by the local regional policy and rules. Similarly Mc Donald’s India isRead MoreMarketing Mix Analysis, And s Growth Matrix3309 Words   |  14 Pagesaddress and highlight strategies such as: Porters five forces, Marketing mix analysis, and Ansoff s growth matrix. These strategies are all useful tools companies use in order to become better companies and increase sales. At the end I will state my opinions on the company Beats. Table of Contents I. Executive Summary Page 3 II. Introduction Page 5 III. Main Features IV. Porter Five Forces Analysis a. Industry Competition b. Threat of Potential Entrants c.Read MoreSwot Analysis : Marketing Mix Strategy1227 Words   |  5 Pagesrate. (Tootelian et al, 2012 ABS, 2011). Marketing Mix Strategy. The marketing mix is the usual ways of controlling, planning marketing equipment’s that an organisation or a company uses to produce a reasonable and desirable reply from its target market (Gronroos, 1994). 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Persuasive Opinion Writing Essay - 1977 Words

Persuasive Opinion Writing The Lesson Activities will help you meet these educational goals: 21st Century Skills—You will use critical-thinking skills and effectively communicate your ideas. Directions Please save this document before you begin working on the assignment. Type your answers directly in the document. _________________________________________________________________________ Self-Checked Activities Write a response for each of these activities. At the end of the lesson, click the link on the final screen to open the Student Answer Sheet. Use the sample answers to evaluate your own work. 1. Analyzing Editorials a. Select a newspaper from this list of prominent newspapers, and read a variety of recent†¦show more content†¦The E-1 plan could make an independent, economically viable Palestinian state impossible. Yet such a state, alongside a secure Israel, is exactly what both sides say they want. Israels retaliatory moves seem counterproductive and likely to hurt just those moderate Palestinians who deserve to be supported. That, in turn, will hurt Israel itself. c. Errors in logic, or fallacies, can make an argument appear weak and unconvincing. Read about good arguments versus fallacies, and complete the five exercises. Then write two syllogisms of your own that are based on fallacies, and explain their logical errors. You might choose from these fallacies: validity problem, post hoc, slippery slope, straw man, inconsistency, begging the question, false dilemma, non sequitur, and ad hominem. Type your response here: How did you do? Check a box below. Nailed It!—I included all of the same ideas as the model response on the Student Answer Sheet. Halfway There—I included most of the ideas in the model response on the Student Answer Sheet. Not Great—I did not include any of the ideas in the model response on the Student Answer Sheet. 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Scientific Management And Human Relations - 1201 Words

â€Å"Scientific Management† and â€Å"Human Relations† are two different management approaches. In Scientific Management, managers are responsible to think and workers do. Frederick Winslow Taylor (1856-1915) develops the Principles of Time and Motion Study, which leads to a conclusion that certain people have a higher work efficiency compared to the others. In his means, cooperation is â€Å"to do what workers are told to do without asking questions or making suggestions.† (as cited in Miller Form, 1924). Human Relation Management was founded by Professor Elton Mayo (1880-1949). During the industrial revolution in early 1920’s, Mayo initiated the Human Relation Theory of Management. A psychologist, Henry C. Link (as cited in Miller Form, 1924, p. 657) relates that the ideal employment method is receiving applicants from all kinds at one end, sort, interview, and record them, before labelling them with the righteous job. Mayo introduced an experiment, the Hawthorne Studies, to look into the impact of working environment on the productivity of workers. Scientific Management, also known as Taylorism, is a theory of management which focuses on workflows analysis. In the 20th century, a large number of immigrants which lacks the ability to comprehend in English entered the workforce in the United States, whom Taylor concludes that labourers are not qualified to plan the process of their jobs. In almost all the mechanic arts the science which underlies each act of each workman is soShow MoreRelatedThe Scientific Management And Human Relations1138 Words   |  5 PagesOrganisational behaviour is influenced by two main theories, scientific management and human relations. The scientific management approach developed by Frederick Winslow Taylor is one of the earliest ideological approaches which attempted to explain a management process scientifically. 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To Kill a Mockingbird †Atticus Finch a Hero free essay sample

Atticus, father of two and a local town lawyer, proves to be one of the main characters used to express Lee’s points. The ways in which Atticus, or any man for that matter, is labelled a ‘hero’ is to meet these, and many others, of the following criteria; they must be strong, in both will and power; they must feel for everyone, to be able to live and love with those around him, and understand with empathy; they must be able to follow their hearts, and be an effective leader to others; but most importantly, they must be able to know what is right, and know right from wrong. He leads his children, Jen and Scout, not just by telling them how to act, but showing them proper manners in all situations of life. Atticus is not only a terrific father, but also a notable citizen in the community of Maycomb County. Throughout the entire novel, Atticus is consecutively dealing with the theme of prejudice, either through his words to his children or through his actions in the courtroom. His actions as a lawyer are just as noble and sincere, as his one aim is to achieve equality. This equality is something Atticus fights for in all aspects of his life, making him a great hero, to the town of Maycomb, and to the mind of the reader. One of the themes produced by the text is that of fatherhood, and the way Atticus is looked up to. Kind and understanding, strict but fair, Atticus Finch embodies everything that a father should be. A man of great strength and courage, he is Scout and Jems hero; the steady presence that keeps them grounded and their only connection to the adult world. He is their teacher, their protector, and their friend. He takes on these responsibilities without hesitation, and cares far Scout and Jem the only way he knows how. He leads his children, Jen and Scout, not just by telling them how to act, but showing them proper manners in all situations of life. This is very important in the maturation of the children because they have a role model that herds them in the morally right direction. The simple act of calling him Atticus and not father brings Scout and Jem to the same level as Atticus. They are people, not children. [The] Best way to clear the air is to have it all out in the open. This shows Atticus’ faith in Scout to tell him exactly what happened the night they were attacked by Mr. Ewell. Part of Atticus role as a father is teacher. Most of Scout and Jems knowledge comes from Atticus. He teaches them the important life lessons that they cant learn from books or blackboards. â€Å"I wanted you to see what real courage is, instead of getting the idea that courage is a man with a gun in his hand. Its when you know youre licked before you begin but you begin anyway and you see it through no matter what. You rarely win, but sometimes you do. † This shows how Atticus Finch is classified as a hero from his father perspective. Another way in which Atticus fits the label of ‘hero’ is his method and morals inside the court room. Atticus, set to defend Tom Robinson against Robert Lee Ewell in a rape alligation, is frowned upon by most of the community; as such acts would have seemed preposterous at the time. He has the courage to teach his children that they must, â€Å"learn to be compassionate and understanding of the problems and conditions of life faced by other people† enabling him to defend Tom Robinson based solely on the theory of justice and equality. Atticus represents the ‘justice’ in the community of Maycomb. This justice is not enough to guarantee Tom an unbiased and fair trial, and is proven at the end of the case. It soon becomes clear that racism is still rife in Maycomb, as Tom is sentenced and found guilty of committing rape of a white woman. Atticus’ case, flawless and well supported, receives much gratitude from Tom’s family, and some members of the public. This shows that through times of struggle and hardship, some can still shine and do what needs to be done. This is a glimmer of hope for justice and equality in towns like Maycomb, and is yet another way in which Atticus can be proven a hero. One of the more apparent traits of a hero which Atticus possesses is that of community; to be able to live and love with those around him, and understand with empathy. An example of this is Atticus’ compassion to Mrs. Dubose, the neighbour who, at the time, is going through a morphine withdrawal. He feels pity for her condition and pride for her ability to go through all the pain and suffering. He understands why Mrs. Dubose is so grouchy and tells Jem and Scout that â€Å"She’s an old lady and shes ill. You just hold your head up high and be a gentleman. Whatever she says to you, its your job not to let her make you mad† Mrs. Dubose is a clear example of how Atticus works in his community, showing his compassion and care for others, and expecting nothing less from his children. When Mrs. Dubose died, he does not retreat his stance on her, â€Å"Mrs Dubose won all ninety-eight pounds of her. According to her view, she dies beholden to nothing and nobody. She was the bravest person I ever knew. † This is yet another example of how Atticus displays empathy to those around him, working with them and trying to create a better place. This creates a well being and well nurtured environment for those around him, displaying yet even more traits of the hero who is Atticus Finch. Atticus Finch displays many traits understood of being a hero, to not only his children, but also to those who witness what he does, what he stands for, and how he does it all. He is the perfect role model for his children, allowing them to think for themselves and discover and mature without his help, while managing to ensure that they head the right way. His belief in equality truly outshines the discrimination which is so clearly rooted deep within the town, and in the hearts of all the people around him. The community of which Atticus is a part of can only benefit from having him there, and by doing so, maintains a sense of fairness and equality within itself. He represents equality in a town where there is none; he represents fairness and justice in a system where none could be found; he represents a father figure, one ready to do anything to allow his children to understand the world for what it is; but mostly, Atticus Finch represents the hero within each of these things, as they represent him in a world not yet ready to accept them.

Starving the Hungry Essay Example For Students

Starving the Hungry Essay Though most Americans are aware of the Great Depression of 1929, which may well be the most serious problem facing our free enterprise economic system, few know of the many Americans who lost their homes, life savings and jobs. This paper briefly states the causes of the depression and summarizes the vast problems Americans faced during the eleven years of its span. This paper primarily focuses on what life was like for farmers during the time of the Depression, as portrayed in John Steinbecks The Grapes of Wrath, and tells what the government did to end the Depression. In the 1920s, after World War 1, danger signals were apparent that a great Depression was coming. A major cause of the Depression was that the pay of workers did not increase at all. Because of this, they couldnt afford manufactured goods. While the factories were still manufacturing goods, Americans werent able to afford them and the factories made no money (Drewry and Oconnor 559). Another major cause related to farmers. Farmers werent doing to well because they were producing more crops and farm products than could be sold at high prices. Therefore, they made a very small profit. This insufficient profit wouldnt allow the farmers to purchase new machinery and because of this they couldnt produce goods quick enough (Drewry and Oconnor 559). We will write a custom essay on Starving the Hungry specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now A new plan was created called the installment plan. This plan was established because many Americans didnt have enough money to buy goods and services that were needed or wanted. The installment plan stated that people could buy products on credit and make monthly payments. The one major problem with this idea was that people soon found out that they couldnt afford to make the monthly payment(Drewry and Oconnor 559). In 1929 the stock market crashed. Many Americans purchased stocks because they were certain of the economy. People started selling their stocks at a fast pace; over sixteen million stocks were sold! Numerous stock prices dropped to fraction of their value. Banks lost money from the stock market and from Americans who couldnt pay back loans. Many factories lost money and went out of business because of this great tragedy (Drewry and Oconnor 352). By the 1930s, thirteen million workers lost their jobs which is 25 percent of all workers. The blacks and unskilled workers were always the first to be fired. Farmers had no money and werent capable of paying their mortgages. Americans traveled throughout the country looking for a place to work to support themselves and their family (Drewry and Oconnor 560-561). John Steinbeck, born in 1902, grew up during the Depression near the fertile Salinas Valley and wrote many books of fiction based on his background and experiences during that time and area of the country. One of his great works would be the Grapes of Wrath. In this book, Steinbeck describes the farmers plight during the Great Depression and drought. When the rains failed to come, the grass began to disappear. As the farmers watched their plants turn brown and the dirt slowly turn to dust they began to fear what was to come. In the water-cut gullies the earth dusted down in dry little streams. As the sharp su! n struck day after day, the leaves of the young corn became less stiff and erect. Then it was June and the sun shone more fiercely. The brown lines on the corn leaves widened and moved in on the central ribs. The weeds frayed and edged back toward their roots. The air was thin and the sky more pale; and every day the earth paled. .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d , .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .postImageUrl , .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d , .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d:hover , .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d:visited , .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d:active { border:0!important; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d:active , .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .ud6c0754da31ee27ac7025733e8ce2a1d:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Gender Roles Essay Thesis (4). The farmers worst fears were realized when their corn and other crops began to die. The dust became so bad they had to cover their mouths with handkerchiefs so they could breath (5). When the drought hit the Great Plains and the soil turned to dust, many farmers moved to California because they could no longer farm their land(Drewry and Oconnor 561). The drought began to affect other parts of the country. In 1930, Missouris belt of fertile land dried up. Ponds, streams, and springs all dried up and the great Mississippi River water level sank lower than ever recorded. Small farmers every-where began to feel the drought. Their smal! l gardens were ruined and their corn crop was cut almost down to nothing. The hay and grass needed to feed their livestock was no longer available. They now faced a major problem -how to feed their livestock. The silos were rapidly emptying and the barns in many cases were empty. The farmers were terrified that the government feed loans wouldnt be available to keep the livestock from dying. In many cases, the Red Cross was making allowances for feed to keep alive livestock (Meltzer 121). The small farmers of fruit trees and vegetable plants depended on others who ran canneries to bottle and can their produce. The people they depended upon were the same people that hired scientists to experiment on the fruits and vegetables to come up with better tasting and yielding produce. Thus the small farmers were dependent on these same rich landowners for almost everything. They couldnt harvest their produce on their own so they sold it to the rich landowners and thus made very ! little money on their produce. The farmers found themselves in debt caused by the purchase of land, tools, animals and other items bought on credit. This credit was due to the bank and when the farmers found them- selves unable to repay the debts the bank took away everything they had their land, homes, animals and equipment. When the banks took over, they went in with tractors and destroyed everything on the farms which included their homes and barns. This is best portrayed in Steinbecks description of how the tractors destroyed everything in its way. The iron guard bit into the house corner, crumbled the wall, and wrenched the little house from its foundation, crushed like a bug (50). In the little houses the tenant people sifted their belongings and the belongings of their father and of their grandfathers (111). This describes how after many generations of farming on their land these people had to gather their property and memories and then try to sell whatever they could. The farmers were so desperate for money that they had to sell for literally pennies. Steinbeck describes the desperate conversation of a farmer to a persepective buyer Well, take it-all junk-and give me five dollars. Youre not buying only junk, youre buying junked lives (112). The desperation for work and money became so bad that they were willing to work for as little as was offered just so they could have some sort of job and make any amount of money. Soon it was a fight for life or death (Steinbeck). In a desperate search for a job farmers moved themselves and their families all over the country. As people wandered the country looking for work they were unable to live in one place. Large numbers of homeless people led to Hoovervilles. The farmers and their families had to build homes out of anything that they could acquire as Steinbeck describes The south wall was made of three sheets of rusy corrugated iron, the east a square of moldy carpet tacked between two board, the north wall a strip of roofing paper and a strip of tattered canvas, and the west wall six pieces of gunny sacking(310-311). The homes were usually near water source so they could have water to drink from, cook and wash their clothing (311). To cut down the number of people seeking jobs or needing help, the government decided to try to come up with some sort of relief. .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 , .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .postImageUrl , .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 , .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71:hover , .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71:visited , .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71:active { border:0!important; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71:active , .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71 .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u84cdd5c1bc6d18109967be446046ad71:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Cheating Essay Among other things, they limited immigration, returned hundreds of Mexicans living here,and sought other methods to help the farmers. Hoovers Federal Farm Board urged farmers to plant less so that prices would go up but there was no encouragement to do so. From 1920 to 1932 farm production did drop 6 percent but prices fell ten times as much-by 63 percent. Farmers watched prices hit new lows-15 cents for corn, 5 cents for cotton and wool, hogs and sugar 3 cents, and beef 2. 5 cents(Meltzer 123). With farm prices so low, most farmers, living under the fear of their mortgages, knew that sooner or later they will lose everything. In 1932 the farmers declared a holiday on selling. They picketed roads asking people to join the. They gave away free milk to the poor and unemployed rather then let it spoil because they refused to sell it. A thirty-d! ay holiday on farm selling was begun August 8 and extended indefinitely(Meltzer 125). In December 1932, 250 farmers from twenty-six states gathered together for a Farmers National Relief Conference. They announced that they demand relief from creditors who threaten to sweep them from their homes and land(Meltzer 126). In May 1933, the Agricultural Ajustment Act was passed. The aim of this act was to raise the farm prices by growing less. The farmers were paid not to use all the land to plant crops. The money came from tax on millers, meat packers, and other food industries. In June of that same year the Farm Credit Act was passed. This act helped farmers get low interest loans. With this act, farmers wouldnt lose their farms to the banks that held the mortgages. The farmers who lost their farms already would also receive low interest loans(Drewry and Oconnor 569). The Great Depression was the end result of World War I. It affected the rich and poor alike, factory workers and farmers, bankers and stockbrokers. In short, it affected everyone; no one was left untouched. But of all the people hurt, farmers were the worst off. John Steinbeck chose to write about farmers hoping that Americans would recognize their plight and correct the situation. The Great Depression is known to be the worst economic disaster in U. S. history. For this reason, the Depression caused many people to change their ideas about the government and economy. Work Cited Drewry, Robert and A. J. OConnor. The Indigenous Role in Business Enterprise. New Guinea: New Guinea Reasearch Unit, 1970. Leonard, Stephen J. Trials and Triumphs: A Colorado Portrait of the Great Depression, With FSA Photographs. Colorado: University Pres of Colorado, 1993. Meltzer, Allen. The Economics of price and wage controls. New York: USA American Elsevier Pub. Co., 1976. Steinbeck, John. The Grapes of Wrath. New York: Penguin, 1986